Measuring Consistency Among Management of Employees

Measuring Consistency Among Management of Employees Conceptualisation, Measurement And Effects Introduction Of The Research Problem And Research Questions This research project focuses on the development and validation of a method for measuring consistency among practices in the management of employees, a field often referred to as Human Resource Management (HRM). With the increasing importance of the ‘human factor in modern organizations, HR-issues have become more salient to organizations that believe that people are their most important asset in achieving organizational goals. Different streams of HR-consistency research can be identified, often divided in the categories ‘external consistency and ‘internal consistency. Both streams of research are in development because of the notion that in the case of external consistency the alignment of HRM practices (e.g. selection, training, pay, appraisal, job security, participation) with business strategy results in positive outcomes. This research project focuses on the concept of ‘internal consistency. The idea central to internal consistency is the positive outcomes generated by consistent combinations of multiple HRM practices, where the effect of the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Many authors already outline the idea that sets of consistent HRM practices can reinforce employee attitudes and behaviour (e.g. Wright McMahan, 1992; Ichniowski et al., 1996; Guest, 1997, Baron Kreps, 1999; Ostroff Bowen, 2000, Boselie, 2002), but also that inconsistent combinations can be ‘deadly (Becker, Huselid, Pickus Spratt, 1997) or create ‘double binds that drive people crazy (Schneider, 1999). Baron Kreps (1999) describe the desirability of internal consistency in terms of the desirability of messages sent out to employees being simple (by following the same principles) and supportive of the same theme. By HRM practices being internally consistent, employees know what is expected of them and what they can expect in turn. Academic research on the effects of multiple HRM practices often proclaims to study internal consistency by defining sets of congruent HRM practices as a system. More specifically, it is suggested that systems of ‘high commitment practices increase organizational effectiveness by creating conditions where employees become highly involved in the organization and work hard to accomplish the organizations goals (Arthur, 1994; MacDuffie, 1995; Whitener, 2000). However, with the exception of Whitener (2000), researchers study the effects of high commitment HR systems on measures of organizational effectiveness without investigating the relationship between high commitment HRM practices and aspects of employee commitment. Stated is that very little is known about how and through which processes HRM practices influences organizational performance (Guest, 1997; Becker, Huselid, Pickus Spratt, 1997; Ostroff Bowen, 2000). Intermediate processes that ultimately affect performance outcomes are referred to as the ‘black box of the HRM-outcome link (e.g. Wright Gardner, 2003). Unlocking the ‘black box means identifying HR-objects that are relevant to employee performance. Ostroff Bowen (2000) state that an HR system is believed to be a complex set of practices that is designed to influence employees attributes that are purported to be the mediating mechanism that links HRM practices and performance outcomes. This proposal identifies the employee attributes of development, wellbeing and motivation to be general goals of HRM activities in creating employee commitment to the organization. Following Guest (1997) and Ostroff Bowen (2000), it is expected that within the variety of HRM practices that an organization holds, different ‘bundles of HRM practices or configurations of internal consistent HRM practices are reinforcing and complementary towards these three different objects that link HRM and outcomes.: Well-being Performance Internal Consistent HR- configurations Motivation Development Another focus of the research project is the conceptualisation of   different configurations of internal consistent HRM practices towards employee development, well-being and motivation. In search for a clear rationale or clear rationales for the way any one practice reinforces the effectiveness of others, no explicit theories for the combined effect of HRM practices are present. Much of the effort done to identify internal consistent practices is by seeking statistical justification for fitting practices afterwards (Guest, 1997; Youndt, Snell, Dean Lepak, 1996; Huselid, 1995). The statistical justification however raises questions on what the explanation of effects of internal consistency is. This study will concentrate on constructing a theory-driven framework for HR-consistency. Finally, the measurement of consistent HRM practices is still discussed in recent literature. Wright Gardner (2003) argue that regarding the level of analysis of HRM practices, most research has concentrated on identifying sets of HRM practices at the organizational level by using single-respondent measures of sets of HRM practices. But the assumption that HRM practices are invariable across large groups of jobs within organizations is not feasible, as Lepak Snell (2002) pointed out. This suggests that lowering the level of analysis could give a more accurate insight in the variation of sets of HRM practices within organizations and across job groups or (business) units. Additionally, gathering data by using single-responses of HR-managers on which HRM practices are in place, probably gives no accurate reflection of reality. Such single-respondent measures of sets of HRM practices are subject to, for instance, the respondents degree of accurate information. Therefore, Guest (1999) and Wright and Gardner (2003) have proposed to measure HRM practices through individual employee perceptions, since employees are the focal unit HRM practices aim at. As such, the research project will focus on the perception op employees on HRM practices. Taken together, this research project aims at the development and validation of a theory-driven method for measuring internal HR-consistency towards employee outcomes as development, well-being and motivation. Further, it examines the contribution of consistency among HRM practices to employee performance. With the notion there is little agreement among researchers on (1) what theoretical basis can be given for consistent combinations of HRM practices (MacDuffie, 1995; Guest, 1997; Ostroff Bowen, 2000), (2) also very little has been done to test internal consistency (Purcell, 1999), and (3) little is known on which consistent HRM practices lead to which outcomes (Dyer and Reeves, 1995; Becker Gerhart, 1996), this leads to the following research questions: Research Problem The research problems central to this proposal are: Which different theoretical approaches to different configurations of internal consistent HRM practices can be identified and what are the implications for the conceptualisation of HR-consistency? How to measure the consistency among HRM practices? What is the effect of internally consistent HRM practices on employee outcomes and organizational performance? Elaboration Of The Research Problems Working towards the development of an instrument for measuring   consistency among HRM practices, three studies involve conceptualisation, a pilot study and the main study testing the effect of HR consistency on performance outcomes. These studies are reviewed below. Conceptualisation Of Internal Hrconsistency Background In defining which consistent configurations of HRM practices are related to the specific objects of development, well-being and motivation, different theoretical approaches can be taken. Working towards a conceptualisation of HR-consistency, some theoretical insights with respect to the combination of HRM practices that already have been made, are described in short here. First, Guest (1997; 2001) refers to the variants of expectancy theory (e.g. Vroom, 1964) as a useful theory with respect to explaining the effects of HRM practices on employee outcomes through the enhancement of motivation. Variants of expectancy theory agree on the proposition that high performance at the individual level, depends on the motivation plus possession of the necessary skills and abilities and an appropriate role and the understanding of that role (Guest, 1997, p. 268). For the consistent combination of HRM practices Guest states there is a case for building on the variants of expectancy theory to combine three sets of practices concerned with competence (e.g. training and development practices or staffing practices), motivation (for example job security, individualized reward systems) and role utilization (for example involvement practices, job design practices). Second, Tsui, Pearce, Porter Tripoli (1997) and Tsui Wang (2002) treat several HRM practices as ‘inducements provided by the employer for expected contributions by the employee in four employment relationships approaches. For the primary conceptual foundation for the employment relationship framework Tsui et al. (1997) use exchange theories (e.g. Blau, 1964). Based on these theories HRM practices could be divided in job-focused and organization-focused HRM practices. Job-focused HRM practices (e.g. pay and short-term investments as job-related training) are consistent in a way they resemble an economic exchange that focuses employee attention on the work unit by formal goal setting, and rewarding unit performance. Organization-focused HRM practices (e.g. job security, participation, and career planning) are consistent in a way they resemble a more social exchange indicating the employers investment in employees and in return investments of employees (e.g. learning new skills, investing in social relationships, flexibility) in the organization. This shows that by building on expectancy theory or exchange theory different bundles of consistent HRM practices arise towards different objects. For the development of an instrument, more insight in different theoretical approaches is required. To review the work already done in this field, this study provides an inventory of different theoretical approaches towards HRM and its outcomes. The aim is to conceptualise this inventory of consistent HRM practices towards employee development, well-being and motivation. Methodology To determine the conceptual structure of the concept of internal consistency we make use of facet analysis. Based on different theoretical approaches, this analysis is conducted to screen topics concerning HR and work practices and their relation with development, well-being, motivation within existing (empirical) literature and instruments. For an extensive screening the following guidelines are used: Literature and instruments are used within the field of organization of labour, Human Resource Management, social policy, work governance models. Literature and instruments can also concern other aspects than only HRM practices The instruments can range from questionnaires, interview methods, to checklists For each theoretical concept of internal consistency towards the three separate objects, HRM practices listed in the various instruments will be identified. Finally, in this qualitative research consistent sets of HRM practices and measures are clustered. Product A product of this study is a first review article on the concept of consistency: Conceptualizing Consistency Among Hrm Practices Conceptual Model Study Well-being Internal Consistent HR- configurations Motivation Development Facet 2 Facet 3 Facet 1 Facet X Pilot Project: Measuring Internal Consistency Background After study 1 proposes which HRM practices theoretically constitute consistent sets of HRM practices towards employee development, well-being motivation, the focus of study 2 is on the measurement of internal HR-consistency. As noted above, consistency among HRM practices towards objects as employee development, well-being and motivation could serve as theoretical framework for identifying the link between consistency and performance outcomes. But how do we measure the different HRM practices? Do employees perceive the same HRM practices to be consistent towards these three objects? Testing the reliability of different internal HR-consistency configurations towards these three objects of consistency is the main focus for the development of a measure for consistency among HRM practices. This study contains a pilot project concerned with the development and testing the reliability of an instrument and procedure to empirically grasp the concept of HR-consistency as perceived by one of the stakeholders, namely the employees affected by them. Methodology A pilot study will be conducted to develop a reliable instrument and validate the measurement of the concept of internal HR-consistency set out in study. Through self-reports, a sample of 300 employees will be studied on their perception of HRM practices in their organization. To ensure that the instrument will be applicable to a wide range of employees, we will use a stratified sample, stratified according to sex, age, job level, company size and working for a profit or non-profit organization. Employees are selected within this sampling frame. Also the objects of development, well-being and motivation at an individual level will be studied by using commonly accepted scales. When possible, these first data will be collected through data collection within master thesis projects. Internal consistency will be measured both directly and indirectly. Indirectly, by examining if theory-driven consistent configurations of HRM practices promote the objects of development, well-being and motivation. Directly, by asking employees which consistency among HRM practices promote the three proposed employee outcomes. Both methods are used to strengthen the concept of consistency. Product Measuring Internal Consistency: A Pilot Project Conceptual Model Study Well-being Internal Consistent HR- configurations Motivation Development Effects Of Internal Consistency On Employee Performance Background The final step within this PhD project focuses on the performance outcomes of the way human resource practices coexist in a consistent or inconsistent manner. Predicted is that individual performance is promoted by HRM practices being consistent towards the three objects that mediate this relationship. A major question still remaining in HRM research is how HRM practices relate to performance outcomes (Ostroff Bowen, 2000; Guest, 1997). As noted earlier it is suggested that different theoretical mechanisms could serve as indicators of consistency among HRM practices that in turn affect different objects. The relationship between three HR-configurations towards development, well-being and motivation on the one hand and individual performance on the other hand will be tested to validate effective configurations of internal consistency examined in study. Methodology Results from the pilot study will be used to validate the instrument and further develop the instrument. For the main testing of effects of HR-consistency configurations on outcomes employee development, well-being, motivation and ultimately performance, two case-organizations, one profit and one nonprofit, will be selected to participate. To ensure that individual performance can be measured, the two organizations are selected on the basis of the use of formal job appraisals. In each of the selected organizations a sample 200 employees will be studied. The expectation is that by participating in the development of an instrument that can be used for own purposes concerning HR-decisionmaking, financial resources for his project could be ensured through mutual interest. The instrument could serve as a HRM scan for organizations and, as such, improve their employee policies by giving insight in the mechanism and effects of their HRM practices. Another goal is to establish long-term collaborations with interested organizations to keep track of the effectiveness of the instrument. Results Relevance The most important result of the research project is a dissertation consisting of four academic articles. The practical and societal relevance of the project is mainly to establish evidence for the importance of HR-consistency and insight in how that affects the employees as well as the organization. In this way conceptualising HR-processes and visualising their effects make a contribution. The relevance of this study lies in extending the literature on internal consistency by also taking the consistency-well-being link and the consistency-development link into account. Also relevant is linking the changing tenure to more performance-based practices to outcomes for wellbeing and development of employees. Another relevant aspect is handing out HR-professionals a theory-driven framework and instrument to asses their internal HR-policy. Other stakeholders such as unions or work councils could benefit while negotiating wages and benefits in the light of consistency with other HRM practices already present. A final point of relevance concerns the contribution to the research program of the department of Human Resource Studies (PEW) by providing tools for further research by the department. References Arthur, J.B. (1994). Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance and turn-over. Academy of management journal, 37, p.670-687. Baron , J.N. Kreps, D.M. (1999). Strategic Human Resources. New York: Wiley Sons. Becker, B. Gerhart,B. (1996). The impact of Human Resource Management on organizational Performance: Progress Prospects. Academy of Management Journal, 39, p.779-801 Becker, B., Huselid, M., Pickus P. Spratt, M. (1997). HR as a source of shareholder value: research and recommendations. Human Resource Management, 36, p.39-47 Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: Wiley. Boselie, P. (2002). Human resource management, work systems and performance : a theoretical-empirical approach. Amsterdam: Thela Thesis (dissertation). Dyer, L. Reeves, T. (1995). HR strategies and firm performance: what do we know and where do we need to go. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 6, p.656-670 Guest, D.E. (1997). Human resource management and performance. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8 (3), 263-275. Guest, D.E. (1999). Human resource management: The Workers Verdict. Human Resource Management Journal, 9 (3), 5-25 Guest, D.E. (2001). Human resource management: When research confronts theory. International Journal Human Resource Management, 12 (7), 10-25 Huselid, M.A. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turn-over, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of management journal, 38, 635-672. Lepak, D.P. Snell, S.A. (2002). Examining the Human Resource Architecture: The relations among Human Capital, Employment and Human Resource Configurations. Journal of Management, 28 (4), 517-543. MacDuffie, J.P. (1995). Human Resource Bundles and Manufacturing Performance. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48 (2), 197-221 Ostroff, C., Bowen, D. E. (2000). Moving HR to a higher level: HR practices and organizational effectiveness. In K. J. Klein S. W. J. Koslowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations. Tsui, A.S., Pearce, J.L., Porter, L.W., Tripoli, A.M. (1997). Alternative approaches to employee-organizational relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of management journal, 40 (5), 1089-1121 Tsui, A.S., Wang (2002). Employment relationships from the employers perspective: Current Research and Future Directions. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 17, 77-114 Vroom, V. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley and Sons Whitener, E.M. (2001). Do â€Å"high commitment† human resource practices affect employee commitment? A cross-level analysis using hierarchical linear modeling. Journal of Management, 27, p.515-535. Wright, P.M. McMahan, G.C. (1992). Theoretical perspectives for strategic human resource management. Journal of Management, 18, 195-320. Wright, P.M. Gardner, T.M. (2003) The Human Resource-Firm Performance relationship: Methodological and Theoretical Challenges in Holman, D., Wall, T.D, Clegg, C.W., Sparrow, P. Howard, A. (Eds.) The New Workplace: A guide to the human impact of modern working practices.

Journey to the Center of the Earth :: essays research papers

The book A Journey to the Center of the Earth, by Jules Verne is a well-written and easy to read book most of the time. In my essay I’m going to give a description of the books events. The book starts with Professor Hardwigg finding a scrap of paper that says its possible to get to the center of the earth and decides to take the journey. Hardwigg insists that Harry, his nephew, come with him on the journey. After they got the supplies, they start their journey for Mt. Sneffels in Iceland, the spot where they can get to the center of the earth. They travel up the mountain and find the opining were they start their journey. At the bottom of the shaft they find four paths that they can take and the Professor chooses one but it’s a dead end they select a different route. They soon discover water, which they vary much need from the lack of. Later they find a well-like shaft where they go farther below the surface of the earth. Continuing to descend Harry goes ahead of the others and it soon lost. He retraces his steps but becomes even more lost. After being lost for days Harry finds his Uncle. Later they discover the Central Sea, an underground body of water. Exp loring the area around the sea, the travelers find huge mushrooms, bones of mastodons and other evidence of plant and animal life. The Professor decides that they must cross the ocean to continue further so they make a raft. Days later two huge monsters surface and almost sink the raft. Continuing on, the three spot what they think is another giant monster but discover it is an island that they start to travel to later a storm hits that almost sinks their raft and the storm carries them back to the shores from were they started but farther along the coast then before. The Professor and Harry finds huge shells and a field of bones and even a human skull. Then they wondered if humans ever lived beneath the earth. They spotted gigantic animals and even a tall human being. Afraid they would get hurt they started back towards the raft. While they were going back Harry spotted a tunnel and inside the initials A.S are carved into it, Arne Saknussemm had been there before them, they also discovered that the tunnel is blocked.

Oijiojoi

Rise of one person at the expense of another, contrasting worlds, disguises, and redemption reveal the four most common Dramatic Patterns found throughout The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. To start with, rise of one person at the expense of another Is a pattern that ultimately describes an Individual whose actions take effect upon themselves. In this case, an example of this pattern would be how the Nurse and Lady Caplet try and convince Juliet to marry Count Paris.Lady Caplet, who barely speaks to Juliet since he was born, surprisingly beckons her to accept Paris' hand in marriage. When the Nurse hears Lady Caplet's request, she also tries to persuade Juliet to marry Paris. This example exposes to the audience how both of the characters are personally setting up the marriage for Juliet only to satisfy themselves. Count Paris is blood related to the Prince, and knowing If they got Juliet to marry him Into the family, his wealth will be shared upon with them. They both consider how muc h advantages they would get over Gullet's wellbeing and happiness.Take the Nurse for instance, in the play, the audience may recognize that she over exaggerates how lovely the idea of marrying Paris when she apprehends the idea of the service she was going to get within Paris. Another example of this pattern Is when the Friar agrees to marry Romeo and Juliet. Like the first example, this reveals the greediness within Friar Lawrence. Within the flirts few scenes before agreeing to the marriage, he disagrees greatly of Romeos love for Juliet and mentions how he tends to rush relationships to an expense. Pam 2After pondering over the idea, he realizes that their forbidden love can patch the Caplet and Montague houses back together in peace. He quickly changes his mind and decides to wed them both, assuming he will get all the credit for mending the feuding households together. Additionally, contrasting worlds is another dramatic pattern that discloses this play and contrasts the differ ences between the servants and their masters. A scene in the play that specifically describes this pattern is when the servants were having a personal party within the Caplet party.When the audience thinks about servants, they think about the responsible tasks that they have to savor for their masters. The audience least expects the servants to have a laughing matter at their own leaders' party. In this case, the Caplet servants are not respecting their roles, but Instead, act as equal within the household to try and gain more privileges. In addition, another instance of this dramatic pattern is when Gullet's father calls the Nurse by her first name, Angelica. While in the midst of preparation for the wedding, Lord Capsules is inning around, overexcited, and giving orders.He gives a task for the Nurse to complete and ends up mentioning her by her first name. The Nurse, astonishingly, the reader to infer that Lord Caplet and the Nurse had an affair. If the audience truly thinks about it, it is remarkable that he calls her by her first name. Last time he spoke to her, he was calling her hurtful names when she went against Juliet and Paris' marriage. Furthermore, disguises is an additional dramatic pattern that supports the building block of the plot of The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet.The first example of this pattern is when Lord Caplet warms up to Paris about marrying Juliet. When Paris asks Lord Caplet for Gullet's hand in marriage, he tells him that Juliet is too young of an age to get married. This reveals that he is Pam 3 lying and hypercritical because he vowed to his wife when she was Just as young as Juliet was. The reader may notice that Lord Caplet is playing hard to get, and instead of easily handing Juliet to Paris, he suggests that Paris should get to know Juliet at the masquerade party before marrying her.In addition, another illustration of disguise is when the Friar pretends that Juliet is dead. When Juliet comes running into Friar Lawrence cell, she demands him to find a way to keep her from marrying Count Paris or she will kill herself right then and there. He panics and tells Juliet that he consumed a potion that will make it appear as if she is dead, but only for a certain amount of time. The Friar's plan was to have Juliet beg her father for forgiveness and agree to the marriage with Paris. She is then going to ingest the potion and appear dead in the morning.The Capsules will then place Juliet in the Caplet tomb, and when she wakes up, Romeo will be there to reassure her. She will then return to Mantra with Romeo, and be unrestricted to live with him away from their parents' hatred. What the Capsules do not know is that Friar Lawrence lied about her being dead, and reassured them to quickly start the burial for Juliet so they will not suspect a thing. Having to lie about Gullet's death prevents his idea from backfiring. Moreover, the dramatic pattern that ties the conclusion of the play is redemption.Redemption s when the characters of the storyline begs for the forgiveness of others. An example that reflects this pattern is when the Friar confesses and asks for mercy when he is caught. In the last act of the play, the Friar's plan had miscarried and Romeo and Juliet ended up committing suicide individually. After being caught by the watchmen, he quickly confesses how he secretly married Romeo and Juliet thinking that he could bring the Capsules and Montague together. He mentions how destroyed Juliet was for having to marry Paris and he offered her a Pam 4 leaping potion to trick everyone that she was dead.The Friar also mentions that he sent a letter to Romeo which failed to deliver about the false death of Juliet, thus leading to Romeo killing himself over disbelief. After seeing Juliet awaken from her deep sleep, the Friar mentions how he tried to convince her to come with him where he will cast her away to be a nun. When Juliet refuses to go with him, he runs away as the group of watchmen cl oses in. While asking for forgiveness, the reader can tell that the Friar does not pity up to the Prince.He gives himself up to Prince Callus and asks for consequences and sacrifice knowing the tragedy he has done to both of the houses was his fault. Another instance where the characters seek redemption is when Lord Caplet makes up with Lord Montague. After they both lost their only child, they both realized that no more lives should be taken from the aging dispute. Now knowing that his daughter is married to a Montague, he calls Romeos father, his make a monument of Romeo while Lord Montague makes a monument of Juliet in honor of their characters.

Psy 244 Essay - 10464 Words

Psychology 244 Instructor: L.J. Harris PSYCHOLOGY 244 MIDTERM EXAMINATION Spring, 2014 Study Guide Organization of Examination and Questions From Which Test Questions Will be Drawn All questions on the examination will come from the lectures (Topics I – X) and the assigned chapters and parts of chapters in the textbook. To help frame the questions for you, they will be organized under the same main headings and subheadings used in the Lecture Notes. The only exceptions will be a few subheadings that pertain to material covered only in the text. Under each heading will be a mix of true-false and multiple-choice questions, and possibly a few analogies, with all answers to be recorded on a scantron sheet. Along with†¦show more content†¦Sample Question In his treatise, Gynecology, the Greek physician Soranus gave careful instructions for how infants should be swaddled: in soft cloths and strips of fabric from the head to the very tip of the toes. Soranuss main reason was to guide the infants growth, to protect it from growing crooked or lame. a. true b. false B. Middle Ages 2. People in the Middle Ages were interested in and concerned for the health and well-being of infants and children. Were they interested to the same degree in the psychology of infants and children? For example, did they understand that children are psychologically different from adults? If yes, how did they show this? If no, how did they show this? Explain your answer. ïÆ'  They showed kids in pictures dressed like adults; faces and bodies were like adults. E.g. Phillip Aries â€Å"small children at play† 3. One of the most famous speeches in Shakespeare’s play, As You Like It, is called The Seven Ages of Man. What do you think Shakespeare was trying to say about psychological development? (Links to videos of the speech can be found in the video version of the syllabus.) ïÆ'  these included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood. C. Renaissance 4. Debates about the relative roles of â€Å"nature† and â€Å"nurture† in human development date from ancient times, but they were especially prominent during the Renaissance. What do theShow MoreRelatedImplications For The Future Paper1627 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ Implications for the Future Paper Tina M Link PSY/460 March 16, 2015 Dora Finamore Implications for the Future Paper Environmental problems exist everywhere in this world today; whether it is in air, the water, traffic, crowding, or noise. Dubois, Pennsylvania which is known for its lumber and coal mining has 7, 794 people living here today. 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